Essay on Prestcom

Political–> Currently we are fairly stable politically which can help trade run smoothly. Energy Saving initiatives can help boost the sales of the Dyson Airblade if for example businesses receive a grant to help pay for the replacement of inefficient electrical appliances e. g traditional style hand dryers. Regulatory–> The product has to be safe to use as it involves electricity and water. Has to be easy to clean so hygienic. Also not damaging to the user e. g the airjets being too powerful.Economic–> Coming out of a recession so businesses may be less inclined to spend money on new appliances, especially ones with a premium price tag such as the Airblade. However it may mean companies are more likely to look into energy saving alternatives to products to try and save money on electricity. Social–> Socially people are more likely to want to protect the environment and may be more likely to look into energy saving options such as the Dyson Airblade. Socia lly companies may be pressurised into investing into environmentally friendly options. Technology–> The dyson Airblade uses cutting edge state of the art technology.Competitors–> Quite a lot of alternative products which offer very similar benefits but at a lower price such as the Xcelarator and the Airforce. Opportunities–> Dyson could release a cheaper product but carries the same dyson brand name, this could draw sales away from cheaper hand dryers as people may be attracted by the brand of dyson. Market–> One of the market leaders expensive but top of the range, may be seen as a premium product, carriers the dyson brand name which means it is highly thought of, however there are lots of cheaper alternatives availiable.

Americanisation Is the Large Influence

Americanisation is the large influence that the United States has on other countries. This particular presentation will focus on the impact of American culture on Australia. Americanisation had started in Australia in the 1950’s, with the introduction of the Television. Since then, Australian culture has been influenced dramatically by America. Americanisation has caused Australia’s popular culture to imitate American society and culture. This presentation agrees with this thesis and will argue that Americanisation has a positive effect on Australia.In particular, it will examine American impact on Television and food, as well as Australian fashion. Television is one of the major indicators of Americanisation in Australia. It is an influential tool that shows how American culture works and operates, and affects the cultural mindset of the Australian people. In Australia, the amount of American shows to Australian shows is very huge. This is in turn provides a higher var iety of entertainment to Australian TV, at a cheap price. Many shows like Two and a Half Men and Seinfeld, are shown more than Local-variety TV shows like Home & Away and Neighbours.This means that Australia is introduced to more American culture on TV than Australian culture, and is an indicator that Americanisation is very present in Australia although food and cuisine is also highly-affected by Americanisation. Australian diets are impacted on by American chain-restaurants such as KFC, McDonalds, and Subway, all of which have chains located in Australia. These chains have turned Australian diets that are of no difference to Americans, and have introduced a wide variety of American food products.This means that Australians have a higher number of options to choose from, along with their own variety of local foods, such as lamingtons and meat pies. America’s chains in Australia have included some big-brand and highly popular names, such as McDonalds, KFC, Subway, and Burger King, along with our own unique brand names, such as Oporto, Baskin-Robins, and Hungry Jacks. This creates a unique blend of Australian cuisine, highly influenced by American culture. This is evidence of the imitation of American culture, as our diets have been made to fit theirs, and our food selections are also ainly American. Australian diets, and Aussie entertainment, have all been influenced by America, and fashion is no exception. Australian fashion is highly Americanized. This means our Aussie fashion has been has been stylized to imitate America, to suit American values and culture. A recent example of this would be the snapback hats and varsity jackets, clothing usually only seen in American Major-league sport, which have been recently introduced into Australian fashion earlier this year.This is an example of American culture seeping into Australian society, and has introduced a broader variety of clothing and styles in Australia. But even before the snapbacks, America alre ady had an extreme influence on what we wear, and how we wear it. This is proved in the sports-wear brand Nike. Nike had introduced themselves as a sport-wear company, and eventually introduced their own brand of clothing lines into Australia. Another example would be the introduction of bandannas and wearing baseball caps back-to-front.These are all examples of Americanisation on Australian culture, and what they wear, affects what we wear, and how we wear it. Australian society has a feint international presence in the world. We are a highly Americanized nation, following American culture and society, and have imitated what they do, how they entertain, what they eat, and what they wear. This means we live in an Australian society, with American culture, values, and mind-set, and has had a positive affect on Australia.

Kodak Case Study

KODAK CASE STUDY SRN 162658 1. Summary 2. Brief Introduction a. Introduction of a Strategic Position b. Introduction of Eastman Kodak Company 3. Analysis of Strategic Position of Kodak a. Analysis of External Environment i. General Environment ii. Industry Environment iii. Competitive Environment of Kodak iv. Introduction of Directional Policy Matrix v. Apply Directional Policy Matrix to Kodak vi. Conclusion b. Internal Resource Audit i. Physical Resources of Kodak ii. Human Resources of Kodak iii. Financial Resources of Kodak iv. Intangibles of Kodak c. Introduction of SWOT Analysis i. Apply SWOT Analysis to Kodak i. Conclusion 4. International marketing and recommendations 5. Appendices 1. Executive summary This essay attempts to analyse the strategic position of Kodak through different models/tools of strategic audit. The first section of this essay describes the context of strategic position and introduces the background of Kodak and its strategic position in present. Three steps analysis are followed in second section to analyse the strategic position of Kodak: Directional Policy Matrix is applied to analyse the competitive environment of Kodak; different types of resources of Kodak are audited and listed in etail; SWOT analysis is applied to identify Kodak’s competences. Through above three steps, we can acquire a clear understanding of Kodak’s strategic position. In the last section of this essay, it summarises the application of different models/tools of strategic management and international marketing, and points out the disadvantages of these models/tools as well as the recommendation of further application of them. 2. Brief Introduction a. Introduction of Strategic Position Organisations vary widely. Some are simple and consist of only one business while others are complex, with the group as a whole containing many businesses. Whatever the size or complexity of organisations, they are all faced with the need to manage their survival and development over the long term. â€Å"Strategy is the direction and scope of an organisation over a long term: which achieves advantages for the organisation through its configuration of resources within a changing environment, to meet the needs of markets and to fulfil stakeholders expectations. † (Johnson, G. & Scholes, K. 1999: 10). Strategy exists at a range of levels in an organisation and includes Corporate Strategy, Business Unit Strategy and Operational Strategy from higher level to lower. With a clear strategy, it is essential to manage an organisation through Strategic Management. Strategic Management combines by three interlinked components: Strategic Analysis, Strategic Choice and Strategic Implementation. In looking at Strategic Analysis, its main aim is to attempt to understand the Strategic Position of the organisation. Strategic Choice and Strategic Implementation are the following steps of Strategic Analysis. Strategic Position of an organisation can be viewed in terms of its external environment, internal resources and competences as well as the expectations and influence of stakeholders. These factors, forming a view of the key influences on the present and future direction and scope of the organisation, assist us to analyse the development and survival of the organisation over a long term. In this essay, accordingly, we will analyse the Strategic Position of an example organisation through four aspects as following: †¢ External Environment †¢ Internal Resources Competences †¢ Expectations of stakeholders b. Introduction of Eastman Kodak Company Eastman Kodak Company (Kodak), based in New York, is a major player in the world’s market for photographic and imaging products and systems. With a strategy of company’s focus on pictures, new products, a strengthening market position, and investments for growth, Kodak has experienced in traditional film and photo im aging business for more than a century. As time goes by, it also suffers the threat from the overwhelming digital trend. With sales of $9. billion in 2008, the company is committed to a digitally oriented growth strategy focused on the following businesses: Health – supplying the healthcare industry with traditional and digital image capture and output products and services; Graphic Communications – offering on-demand color and black and white printing, wide-format inkjet printing, high-speed, high-volume continuous inkjet printing, as well as document scanning, output and storage products and services; Digital & Film Imaging Systems – providing consumers, professionals and cinematographers with digital and traditional products and services; and Display & Components – which designs and manufactures state-of-the-art organic light-emitting diode displays as well as other specialty materials, and delivers imaging sensors to original equipment manufacturers. 3. Analysis of strategic position of Kodak Success in modern world requires constant innovation and change – things most of the organisation are not known very well. This environment changes so rapidly that even the best idea can fade fast. Perhaps this is the reason that environment is so important to an organisation. a. Analysis of External Environment i. General Environment Technological Environment. The influx of technological advancements into the photographic marketplace has presented the industry with a unique set of challenges and possibilities. Technological discoveries and enhancements have hastened the growth of the traditional silver-halide market. In addition, with the onset of digital technology, the industry is faced with chance to expand its business through venturing more into digital imaging which is currently putting forth enticing opportunities. On the downside, considering the electronic nature of the products offered in line with digital imaging (eg. scanners, printers, etc. ), entry of potential competitors, particularly from the electronics group who may have equally competent resources and capabilities, is still at a height. As a result, the structure of the industry may be altered. Socio-Cultural Environment. With society’s increasing awareness over environmental preservation, possible hindrance in the growth of the players in the industry is present. The film marketed by these companies, as an example, are currently packaged in plastic non-biodegradable tube cases. As a response to environmental concerns and grievances, repackaging using nature-friendly materials may be ensued. This also holds true with single-use cameras (SUCs) which is primarily composed of plastic non-biodegradable materials. Here, companies may either reduce its margin or impose higher prices over its products in repackaging its products to be environmental-friendly brought by a possible increase in its production cost. The market’s culture may also impede the entry of global industry players. As an example, with Japan’s resistance to Western influence and its society’s higher preference over locally made products, foreign industry players would most likely have difficulty in penetrating in this geographical segment. In addition, with the fact ascertained that photographic products are usually used in instances of special occasions (eg. weddings, birthdays, holidays, fiestas, etc. ), regularity of celebration of these occasions would deeply affect the demand of the products. Economic Environment. The global scale of the photographic market presents some threats to its core business. Sales in its geographical segments would generally differ according to a country’s economic state. Sluggish economy or economies under recession decrease sales as a result of delayed spending on leisure goods. In addition to the state of the economy, tariff and foreign trade laws may render leisure good spending in lull brought by higher prices as a result of the duties imposed on the goods. Tourism economy, as a whole, has a direct effect on the industry. As the number of tourists decrease, usage of photographic materials would most likely decrease demand. Legal or Political Environment. Legal influences may hamper the growth of some players in the industry. Antitrust laws, for example, may limit expansion of industry players through its provisions. On the brighter side, however, this may protect the position of a company in the market. Foreign laws, in addition, in its move to protect local firms, may thwart the entry of global producers in its market. Furthermore, patent and proprietary rights laws would deter firms to expand, venture, and produce patented products. ii. Industry Environment Threat of New Entrants. With great barriers, the threat of new entrants in the industry is at a low level. This is brought about by the sizeable investment required in procuring manufacturing equipments for a potential entrant. Due to narrow margins, manufacturers need to rely on mass production in order to take advantage of economies of scale. This keeps start-up costs high, making it difficult for new entrants to the market. Furthermore, marketing costs are also high for these entrants for it to be able to topple down existing players or even penetrate the market. This is in view of the current industry players, which if characterized, are established and successfully positioned in the market obtaining brand loyalty. Also, with the length of these companies’ operations in mind, they have been riding down the experience curve; as a result, economies of scale and cost advantage have already been achieved. In addition, prospecting players must introduce into the market differentiated products that are more enhanced than that offered by existing players, which would require it to spend a substantial amount in research and development projects. However, with the emerged digital imaging in view, the risk posed by potential industry entrants may be shifted from a low level to a moderate one. This is in view, as stated in the earlier part, of the electronic nature of some products offered by the digital imaging technology which has the possibility of attracting electronic companies who may possess capabilities and competencies that could equal or even exceed that of the current industry players. Rivalry among Established Competitors. Firms under the photographic industry operate in an oligopolistic environment were few of the member firms share dominance such as Eastman Kodak, Samsung, Sony, Fuji Films and Canon. Competition among these firms is at a fierce level given the fact of its slow-growth particularly in the traditional photography. Here, with demand conditions at a moderate level of progress, firms closely compete to capture and increase market share through price wars. Exit barriers within the industry are at a high level as well contributing to the intense rivalry among industry players. Bargaining Power of Buyers. The influence set forth by the buyers in the industry is at a moderate degree. Though products offered by the firms in the industry have attained brand loyalty, cost advantage and economies of scale and has a lesser threat of substitute products, still, firms are forced by buyers to bargain for lower prices by the quantity of their purchase. In addition, with price wars evident among industry players, buyers take advantage on playing off with these firms to obtain cheaper costs or even present a threat of providing for a lesser shelf space. In b2b area some buyers can manage procurement through agencies that purchase on behalf of groups or organizations to secure competitive pricing through greater purchasing power. Such complex arrangements can sometimes create long lead times from tendering to delivery and that negatively affects company’s financial indicator, for example, cash flow. Bargaining Power of Suppliers. The pressure exerted by the suppliers over the firms in the industry is at a low degree. However, the production process requires diverse inputs, materials and processes, giving sometimes the suppliers increased power. Silver, for example, a major raw material in the industry is widely available. It is evidenced with the fact that in the past years, no direct relationship can be established that price of the commodity has been affected by fluctuations in the availability and price of raw materials. In fact, the photographic industry consumes about one-fourth of the global demand for silver. Furthermore, with the high level of availability of packaging materials, in this case plastic tubes and canisters, and boxes, bargaining power of suppliers is at a lesser scale. Threat of Substitute Products. Mobile phones, as they increase in power and sophistication, present the biggest challenge to the cheaper end of the market for photographic equipment. However, despite this, digital cameras and camcorders are still regarded as the preferred devices for taking quality pictures. iii. Competitive Environment of Kodak The external environment of Kodak is complex. As Kodak is focusing on imaging business, this market is the vital market for it. In digital age, more and more activities are related to digital means, same as more and more business are derived from digital technologies. Digital trend, indeed, is a long-term threat to one of Kodak’s business – silver print. At the beginning ? 2000s experts disagreed over how long it will take for digital imaging to start shrinking the worldwide traditional imaging market, but that day is already has come. Kodak operates in a number of different markets, including photographic equipment, film, electronic consumer goods, computing systems and printing. Consequently, it competes with general and specialised manufacturers and retailers across the range of its products and services. Its main competitors can be found in Appendix 1. iv. Introduction of Directional Policy Matrix ( (can be found in appendix 1) v. Apply Directional Policy Matrix to Kodak With detailed evaluation factors list in Table 1, we will find that Kodak has strong competitive strength in its core business of traditional imaging but this industry is around unattractive and average. On the other hand, digital imaging business is a promising market though Kodak is under intense competitive pressure every step of its way to the digital world. Based on aforementioned factors, we can draw up two pie charts in the matrix representing the Traditional Imaging market and Digital Imaging market as well as Kodak’s market share (Refer to Figure 1). Consequently, we can draw out the professional comments on these markets from the Directional Policy Matrix. For Digital Imaging market, Kodak should â€Å"invest to retain market share as industry grows† or even set it as â€Å"priority products and service†. While for Traditional Imaging market, â€Å"invest selectively to maximize cash generation† perhaps is the best choice to be selected. [pic] Figure 1. Directional Policy Matrix for Kodak (based on the Directional Policy Matrix of Shell) vi. Conclusion As mentioned above, it can be easily understood why Kodak selected Digital Imaging as its key business in present and in future whilst maintain its investment on the traditional Imaging market. It is apparent that Directional Policy Matrix provides a useful method to direct managers’ attention to key forces in the competitive environment, and brings forward questions about appropriate strategies for different business units and the portfolio as a whole. However, it should be kept in mind that the effectiveness of this approach depends on the precise information of a competitive nature between competitors in the market. Moreover, the procurement of the information in depth is not always straightforward. b. Internal Resource Audit Successful strategies depend not only on the analysis and understanding of external environment, but also the internal resources the organisation owns. Analysing the internal resources of the organisation involves both drawing up a list of the main resources and developing of the way the organisation operates. According to G. Johnson & K. Scholes’ classification (1999), internal resources can be grouped as following: †¢ Physical Resources †¢ Human Resources †¢ Financial Resources †¢ Intangibles As a multination company, Kodak owns huge resources to support its worldwide operation. According to above classification, we can identify the resources separately. i. Physical Resource of Kodak Kodak has its physical resources spread all over the world which include factories, laboratories, offices, land, building and equipments etc. ii. Human Resource of Kodak At the end of 2006 Kodak employed 40,900 people (full-time equivalent) of which 20,600 were based in the US. However, this was at the start of a major restructuring programme and employee numbers have been reduced significantly. In 2008, its total headcount had fallen to 24,400. In January 2009, it announced the loss of 4,500 more jobs when it posted a quarterly loss. Within these staff, there have great majority of excellent experts and skilled technicians as well as experienced marketers, salesmen, accountants and the repository of many kinds of professionals. iii. Financial Resources of Kodak The results reported in Kodak’s 2006 Annual Report showed remarkable advances towards achieving its ambitions. In comparison with the previous year, digital earnings increased from $72 million to $343 million, while digital revenue grew by $316 million. Cash generation was an important consideration for Kodak, since it had started 2006 with debts of $3,583 million and had to find over $500 million for restructuring costs. In that year, it managed to reduce its debts by $805 million. However, just as Kodak appeared to have made the transition to world leader in the digital market, the world economy took a nosedive, leaving the organisation fighting for survival. The results in 2008 revealed a fall in sales for the third year in a row and an overall operating loss of $442 million. In anticipation of the recession, Kodak made a number of changes to its structure and operations to help avoid the worst effects. Worse was yet to come. In 2009, sales fell by 24% in the quarter January to March, and a further 29% in the following quarter April to June. Kodak is predicting losses of up to $400 million and has already reduced its cash reserves by 39% to $1. 31 billion. The highest and lowest ordinary share values are tracked and reported on a quarterly basis in the 2008 Annual Report. In 2007, the shares were enjoying highs of around $30 and lows of about $22. Cyclical variation in share value is common, reflecting the timing of reporting results and dividends. However in 2008, share value did not rise above $22 and fell below $6 in the fourth quarter. More recently still, share value has fallen to an all-time low of $3 each. The sale of digital cameras worldwide has fallen by 4-5%, and their average retail price has fallen by 30%. Even so, the company has announced that its cash position is secure and it has plans to survive even if the recession continues. It has high hopes that its new inkjet printers that use silicon technology rather than individual ink cartridges will ease the company into recovery. iv. Intangibles of Kodak Kodak is one of the most famous brands in the world. This brand, come through more than one century’s worth of innovations, known by most of the customers and considered as the representation of picture. Besides this, Kodak also holds thousands of image and chromatology patents as well as its good alliance and co-operators. Introduction of SWOT Analysis SWOT analysis is the examination of an organisation’s strengths and weaknesses in relation to its possible opportunities and threats. The strengths and weakness of the organisation derive from the evaluation of its internal resource while the opportunities and threats depend on the assessment of its external environment. SWOT analysis represents an evaluation of how well the organisation utilises its resources to match the needs of the environment in which the firm operates and competes. According to the summary of R. Lynch (Lynch, R. 1997: 262), there have a ange of possible factors as to SWOT analysis. However, we will ignore the factors related to Opportunities and Threats analysis because they have been discussed in above section. In Figure 3 there have a list of the factors for Strengths and Weaknesses analysis. Apply SWOT analysis to Kodak (can be found in Appendix 2) Conclusion To making the best use of the strengths and negate or counter the weaknesses, it is a reasonable decision for Kodak to maintain its progress in Traditional Imaging business (Part 2 of Kodak Strategic Position) and concentrate on combining Digital Imaging and Traditional Imaging as a whole (Part 3 of Kodak Strategic Position). Moreover, Intangibles and Human Resources operate as unique resources and build up Kodak’s Core Competences: Reputation and Core Strengths & Key Skill in the markets Kodak operates. The application of SWOT analysis to organization as well as competitors can indicate a business its relative position in the market and again direct the firm towards appropriate strategies. However, SWOT itself provides no formal set of rules for strategic success, certain general guidelines may nonetheless be deprives from it. This analysis requires an overall understanding of both the environment and the resource capabilities, which likely will restrain the application of this analysis. 4. International marketing strategy The level of diversity of Kodak’s business helps the company to be global and take advantage of the disparate demands of consumer around the world. The company must encourage further diversification of Kodak’s business in the East. Kodak’s slow movement towards digital, coupled with the still early market demands of consumers in emerging markets have bought Kodak time by allowing it to still pursue its outdated model. It can be a result of this global reach, and ability for Kodak to straddle different technologies across locations that the company will continue to strengthen its balance sheet, reducing its debts, and generating more revenue in investable cash. That can happen largely credited to the emerging markets that may become the greatly needed cash-cows of Kodak’s business. In fact, probably the only reason why Kodak hasn’t completely dropped off the competitive landscape is due to emergent Eastern markets that offer a glimmer of hope of interim cash-flow. The key now is to recognise this reprieve and build a global strategy that can continue to exploit silver-halide technology, whilst getting the rest of the firm in shape to address the changed market in the West. Appendix 1 One way to consider the competitive position of Kodak is by means of the Directional Policy Matrix (Thompdon, L. J. 1993). This matrix is constructed above two axes: the Industry Attractiveness in horizontal axis and the organisation’s competitive position in vertical axis. By evaluating relevant factors of these two dimensions we can place appropriate positions for discussed organisation.    |   |Traditional Imaging |Digital Imaging | |Industry Attractiveness |Market Growth |Low |High | | |Supplier Pressure |Low |Low | | |Customer Pressure |High |High | | |Substi tute Products |Low |High | | |Government Action |Constraint |Support | | |Entry Barriers |Low |High | | |Competitive Pressure |High |High | |Competitive Position |Competition |High |High | | |Relative Market Share |High Low | | |Production Capability |High |Medium | | |Research and Development Record |High |Medium | | |and Strength | | | | |Financial Success |Medium |Low | | | | Appendix 2 Refer to Figure 3, there have available resources of Kodak listed in the top and their positive effects on the factors are indicated as â€Å" * †. Viewing from each row, we can obtain an overall evaluation of the resources’ contribution to a single factor and determine whether this factor is Strength or Weakness to Kodak. Furthermore, when viewing from each column, we can even acquire the contributions of one resource to different factors. In fact, Kodak has more strengths than weaknesses in Traditional Imaging market. †¢ It has strengths in Market Dominance and Financial & Cash Resource, thus there has sufficient cash provided for firm’s further activities. †¢ It also has strength in Reputation and Core Strengths & Key Skill, which suggest Kodak maintain its advantage in Traditional Imaging market. The weakness of differentiated product of Kodak in Traditional Imaging indicates that Kodak should extent its product lines to more areas. A rational way to do so is to combine Traditional Imaging with Digital Imaging to generate more innovation. | | Resources |Physical |Human |Financial |Intangibles | | | | |Factors |Resource |Resource |Resource | | | | |Traditional |Market Dominance |* |* |   |* |   |Strength | |Imaging | | | | | | | | Digital Imaging |Market Dominance | | |   |* |   |Weakness | | |Core Strengths & Key Skill | |* |   |* |   |Strength | | |Financial and Cash Resource |   |   | |   |   |Weakness | | |Reputation |   |   |   |* |   |Strength | | |Differentiated Products | | | | |   |Weakness | | While in Digital Imaging market, Kodak has little Strengths but more weakness. †¢ The strength in Reputation and Core Strengths & Key Skill recommends that Kodak continue making effort in Digital Imaging for further success. †¢ It has weakness in Market Dominance and Financial & Cash Resource, therefore Kodak still need invest more money to support its progress in Digital Imaging. The weakness of differentiated product in Digital Imaging also indicates that Kodak should combine Digital Imaging with Traditional Imaging. Seeing about the contribution of resources to factors in Figure 3, we can find that Intangibles and Human Resources represent substantial proportions in gettin g Kodak’s strengths. These two resources, together with other resource, build up the Threshold and Core Competence of Kodak. Appendix 3 Kodak Divisions The company’s products and services are categorized under the following different segments: Consumer photography: †¢ Digital cameras †¢ Software †¢ Printer and camera docks †¢ Online printing services †¢ Accessories †¢ Inkjet paper †¢ Picture maker †¢ Picture CD Film & processing †¢ Single-use cameras Professional products: Films: †¢ Colour transparency films: E-Family †¢ Colour negative films †¢ Laboratory and duplicating films †¢ Black-and-white films †¢ Advanced amateur film Papers: †¢ Professional papers and materials †¢ Inkjet photo paper †¢ Thermal printer media Chemistry: †¢ Photographic chemicals Digital Products: †¢ Professional digital cameras †¢ Digital photo printers †¢ Lab digitisation products †¢ P rofessional photoCD Medical imaging products: †¢ Digital radiography †¢ Computed radiography †¢ RIS/PACS †¢ Medical printing †¢ Mammography †¢ Oncology †¢ Molecular imaging †¢ Dental products Graphic communication products: Colour management and proofing †¢ Press, plates and printing systems †¢ Data management and storage †¢ Document management Business and government products: †¢ Document scanners †¢ Reference archive †¢ Micrographics †¢ Software †¢ Microfilm & more ———————– [? ] |#%,[email  protected]†¹Ã¢â‚¬â€ COOee? -oeYIoA? A ©?  ©?  ©Ã¢â‚¬ ¢Ã‚ ©Ã¢â‚¬ ¢? A? z? nf^fRGh? $Ah|[3mHsHh? $Ah|[3mHo([pic]sH h? $AmHsH h|[3mHsHhYfOh? $AmHo([pic]sHhYfOh? $ACJmHo([pic]sHhYfOh? $ACJmHsHh? $Ah? $AmHo([pic]sH hlVmHsHh? $Ah? $AmHsHhYfOh? $ACJmHo([pic]sHhYfOh? $ACJmHsHharAharA5? CJmHsHharAharA5? CJ(mHsHharA5? CJ(mHsHFigure 3. SWOT Analysis for Koda k Table 1. Evaluation Factors for Directional Policy Matrix Kodak Case Study KODAK CASE STUDY SRN 162658 1. Summary 2. Brief Introduction a. Introduction of a Strategic Position b. Introduction of Eastman Kodak Company 3. Analysis of Strategic Position of Kodak a. Analysis of External Environment i. General Environment ii. Industry Environment iii. Competitive Environment of Kodak iv. Introduction of Directional Policy Matrix v. Apply Directional Policy Matrix to Kodak vi. Conclusion b. Internal Resource Audit i. Physical Resources of Kodak ii. Human Resources of Kodak iii. Financial Resources of Kodak iv. Intangibles of Kodak c. Introduction of SWOT Analysis i. Apply SWOT Analysis to Kodak i. Conclusion 4. International marketing and recommendations 5. Appendices 1. Executive summary This essay attempts to analyse the strategic position of Kodak through different models/tools of strategic audit. The first section of this essay describes the context of strategic position and introduces the background of Kodak and its strategic position in present. Three steps analysis are followed in second section to analyse the strategic position of Kodak: Directional Policy Matrix is applied to analyse the competitive environment of Kodak; different types of resources of Kodak are audited and listed in etail; SWOT analysis is applied to identify Kodak’s competences. Through above three steps, we can acquire a clear understanding of Kodak’s strategic position. In the last section of this essay, it summarises the application of different models/tools of strategic management and international marketing, and points out the disadvantages of these models/tools as well as the recommendation of further application of them. 2. Brief Introduction a. Introduction of Strategic Position Organisations vary widely. Some are simple and consist of only one business while others are complex, with the group as a whole containing many businesses. Whatever the size or complexity of organisations, they are all faced with the need to manage their survival and development over the long term. â€Å"Strategy is the direction and scope of an organisation over a long term: which achieves advantages for the organisation through its configuration of resources within a changing environment, to meet the needs of markets and to fulfil stakeholders expectations. † (Johnson, G. & Scholes, K. 1999: 10). Strategy exists at a range of levels in an organisation and includes Corporate Strategy, Business Unit Strategy and Operational Strategy from higher level to lower. With a clear strategy, it is essential to manage an organisation through Strategic Management. Strategic Management combines by three interlinked components: Strategic Analysis, Strategic Choice and Strategic Implementation. In looking at Strategic Analysis, its main aim is to attempt to understand the Strategic Position of the organisation. Strategic Choice and Strategic Implementation are the following steps of Strategic Analysis. Strategic Position of an organisation can be viewed in terms of its external environment, internal resources and competences as well as the expectations and influence of stakeholders. These factors, forming a view of the key influences on the present and future direction and scope of the organisation, assist us to analyse the development and survival of the organisation over a long term. In this essay, accordingly, we will analyse the Strategic Position of an example organisation through four aspects as following: †¢ External Environment †¢ Internal Resources Competences †¢ Expectations of stakeholders b. Introduction of Eastman Kodak Company Eastman Kodak Company (Kodak), based in New York, is a major player in the world’s market for photographic and imaging products and systems. With a strategy of company’s focus on pictures, new products, a strengthening market position, and investments for growth, Kodak has experienced in traditional film and photo im aging business for more than a century. As time goes by, it also suffers the threat from the overwhelming digital trend. With sales of $9. billion in 2008, the company is committed to a digitally oriented growth strategy focused on the following businesses: Health – supplying the healthcare industry with traditional and digital image capture and output products and services; Graphic Communications – offering on-demand color and black and white printing, wide-format inkjet printing, high-speed, high-volume continuous inkjet printing, as well as document scanning, output and storage products and services; Digital & Film Imaging Systems – providing consumers, professionals and cinematographers with digital and traditional products and services; and Display & Components – which designs and manufactures state-of-the-art organic light-emitting diode displays as well as other specialty materials, and delivers imaging sensors to original equipment manufacturers. 3. Analysis of strategic position of Kodak Success in modern world requires constant innovation and change – things most of the organisation are not known very well. This environment changes so rapidly that even the best idea can fade fast. Perhaps this is the reason that environment is so important to an organisation. a. Analysis of External Environment i. General Environment Technological Environment. The influx of technological advancements into the photographic marketplace has presented the industry with a unique set of challenges and possibilities. Technological discoveries and enhancements have hastened the growth of the traditional silver-halide market. In addition, with the onset of digital technology, the industry is faced with chance to expand its business through venturing more into digital imaging which is currently putting forth enticing opportunities. On the downside, considering the electronic nature of the products offered in line with digital imaging (eg. scanners, printers, etc. ), entry of potential competitors, particularly from the electronics group who may have equally competent resources and capabilities, is still at a height. As a result, the structure of the industry may be altered. Socio-Cultural Environment. With society’s increasing awareness over environmental preservation, possible hindrance in the growth of the players in the industry is present. The film marketed by these companies, as an example, are currently packaged in plastic non-biodegradable tube cases. As a response to environmental concerns and grievances, repackaging using nature-friendly materials may be ensued. This also holds true with single-use cameras (SUCs) which is primarily composed of plastic non-biodegradable materials. Here, companies may either reduce its margin or impose higher prices over its products in repackaging its products to be environmental-friendly brought by a possible increase in its production cost. The market’s culture may also impede the entry of global industry players. As an example, with Japan’s resistance to Western influence and its society’s higher preference over locally made products, foreign industry players would most likely have difficulty in penetrating in this geographical segment. In addition, with the fact ascertained that photographic products are usually used in instances of special occasions (eg. weddings, birthdays, holidays, fiestas, etc. ), regularity of celebration of these occasions would deeply affect the demand of the products. Economic Environment. The global scale of the photographic market presents some threats to its core business. Sales in its geographical segments would generally differ according to a country’s economic state. Sluggish economy or economies under recession decrease sales as a result of delayed spending on leisure goods. In addition to the state of the economy, tariff and foreign trade laws may render leisure good spending in lull brought by higher prices as a result of the duties imposed on the goods. Tourism economy, as a whole, has a direct effect on the industry. As the number of tourists decrease, usage of photographic materials would most likely decrease demand. Legal or Political Environment. Legal influences may hamper the growth of some players in the industry. Antitrust laws, for example, may limit expansion of industry players through its provisions. On the brighter side, however, this may protect the position of a company in the market. Foreign laws, in addition, in its move to protect local firms, may thwart the entry of global producers in its market. Furthermore, patent and proprietary rights laws would deter firms to expand, venture, and produce patented products. ii. Industry Environment Threat of New Entrants. With great barriers, the threat of new entrants in the industry is at a low level. This is brought about by the sizeable investment required in procuring manufacturing equipments for a potential entrant. Due to narrow margins, manufacturers need to rely on mass production in order to take advantage of economies of scale. This keeps start-up costs high, making it difficult for new entrants to the market. Furthermore, marketing costs are also high for these entrants for it to be able to topple down existing players or even penetrate the market. This is in view of the current industry players, which if characterized, are established and successfully positioned in the market obtaining brand loyalty. Also, with the length of these companies’ operations in mind, they have been riding down the experience curve; as a result, economies of scale and cost advantage have already been achieved. In addition, prospecting players must introduce into the market differentiated products that are more enhanced than that offered by existing players, which would require it to spend a substantial amount in research and development projects. However, with the emerged digital imaging in view, the risk posed by potential industry entrants may be shifted from a low level to a moderate one. This is in view, as stated in the earlier part, of the electronic nature of some products offered by the digital imaging technology which has the possibility of attracting electronic companies who may possess capabilities and competencies that could equal or even exceed that of the current industry players. Rivalry among Established Competitors. Firms under the photographic industry operate in an oligopolistic environment were few of the member firms share dominance such as Eastman Kodak, Samsung, Sony, Fuji Films and Canon. Competition among these firms is at a fierce level given the fact of its slow-growth particularly in the traditional photography. Here, with demand conditions at a moderate level of progress, firms closely compete to capture and increase market share through price wars. Exit barriers within the industry are at a high level as well contributing to the intense rivalry among industry players. Bargaining Power of Buyers. The influence set forth by the buyers in the industry is at a moderate degree. Though products offered by the firms in the industry have attained brand loyalty, cost advantage and economies of scale and has a lesser threat of substitute products, still, firms are forced by buyers to bargain for lower prices by the quantity of their purchase. In addition, with price wars evident among industry players, buyers take advantage on playing off with these firms to obtain cheaper costs or even present a threat of providing for a lesser shelf space. In b2b area some buyers can manage procurement through agencies that purchase on behalf of groups or organizations to secure competitive pricing through greater purchasing power. Such complex arrangements can sometimes create long lead times from tendering to delivery and that negatively affects company’s financial indicator, for example, cash flow. Bargaining Power of Suppliers. The pressure exerted by the suppliers over the firms in the industry is at a low degree. However, the production process requires diverse inputs, materials and processes, giving sometimes the suppliers increased power. Silver, for example, a major raw material in the industry is widely available. It is evidenced with the fact that in the past years, no direct relationship can be established that price of the commodity has been affected by fluctuations in the availability and price of raw materials. In fact, the photographic industry consumes about one-fourth of the global demand for silver. Furthermore, with the high level of availability of packaging materials, in this case plastic tubes and canisters, and boxes, bargaining power of suppliers is at a lesser scale. Threat of Substitute Products. Mobile phones, as they increase in power and sophistication, present the biggest challenge to the cheaper end of the market for photographic equipment. However, despite this, digital cameras and camcorders are still regarded as the preferred devices for taking quality pictures. iii. Competitive Environment of Kodak The external environment of Kodak is complex. As Kodak is focusing on imaging business, this market is the vital market for it. In digital age, more and more activities are related to digital means, same as more and more business are derived from digital technologies. Digital trend, indeed, is a long-term threat to one of Kodak’s business – silver print. At the beginning ? 2000s experts disagreed over how long it will take for digital imaging to start shrinking the worldwide traditional imaging market, but that day is already has come. Kodak operates in a number of different markets, including photographic equipment, film, electronic consumer goods, computing systems and printing. Consequently, it competes with general and specialised manufacturers and retailers across the range of its products and services. Its main competitors can be found in Appendix 1. iv. Introduction of Directional Policy Matrix ( (can be found in appendix 1) v. Apply Directional Policy Matrix to Kodak With detailed evaluation factors list in Table 1, we will find that Kodak has strong competitive strength in its core business of traditional imaging but this industry is around unattractive and average. On the other hand, digital imaging business is a promising market though Kodak is under intense competitive pressure every step of its way to the digital world. Based on aforementioned factors, we can draw up two pie charts in the matrix representing the Traditional Imaging market and Digital Imaging market as well as Kodak’s market share (Refer to Figure 1). Consequently, we can draw out the professional comments on these markets from the Directional Policy Matrix. For Digital Imaging market, Kodak should â€Å"invest to retain market share as industry grows† or even set it as â€Å"priority products and service†. While for Traditional Imaging market, â€Å"invest selectively to maximize cash generation† perhaps is the best choice to be selected. [pic] Figure 1. Directional Policy Matrix for Kodak (based on the Directional Policy Matrix of Shell) vi. Conclusion As mentioned above, it can be easily understood why Kodak selected Digital Imaging as its key business in present and in future whilst maintain its investment on the traditional Imaging market. It is apparent that Directional Policy Matrix provides a useful method to direct managers’ attention to key forces in the competitive environment, and brings forward questions about appropriate strategies for different business units and the portfolio as a whole. However, it should be kept in mind that the effectiveness of this approach depends on the precise information of a competitive nature between competitors in the market. Moreover, the procurement of the information in depth is not always straightforward. b. Internal Resource Audit Successful strategies depend not only on the analysis and understanding of external environment, but also the internal resources the organisation owns. Analysing the internal resources of the organisation involves both drawing up a list of the main resources and developing of the way the organisation operates. According to G. Johnson & K. Scholes’ classification (1999), internal resources can be grouped as following: †¢ Physical Resources †¢ Human Resources †¢ Financial Resources †¢ Intangibles As a multination company, Kodak owns huge resources to support its worldwide operation. According to above classification, we can identify the resources separately. i. Physical Resource of Kodak Kodak has its physical resources spread all over the world which include factories, laboratories, offices, land, building and equipments etc. ii. Human Resource of Kodak At the end of 2006 Kodak employed 40,900 people (full-time equivalent) of which 20,600 were based in the US. However, this was at the start of a major restructuring programme and employee numbers have been reduced significantly. In 2008, its total headcount had fallen to 24,400. In January 2009, it announced the loss of 4,500 more jobs when it posted a quarterly loss. Within these staff, there have great majority of excellent experts and skilled technicians as well as experienced marketers, salesmen, accountants and the repository of many kinds of professionals. iii. Financial Resources of Kodak The results reported in Kodak’s 2006 Annual Report showed remarkable advances towards achieving its ambitions. In comparison with the previous year, digital earnings increased from $72 million to $343 million, while digital revenue grew by $316 million. Cash generation was an important consideration for Kodak, since it had started 2006 with debts of $3,583 million and had to find over $500 million for restructuring costs. In that year, it managed to reduce its debts by $805 million. However, just as Kodak appeared to have made the transition to world leader in the digital market, the world economy took a nosedive, leaving the organisation fighting for survival. The results in 2008 revealed a fall in sales for the third year in a row and an overall operating loss of $442 million. In anticipation of the recession, Kodak made a number of changes to its structure and operations to help avoid the worst effects. Worse was yet to come. In 2009, sales fell by 24% in the quarter January to March, and a further 29% in the following quarter April to June. Kodak is predicting losses of up to $400 million and has already reduced its cash reserves by 39% to $1. 31 billion. The highest and lowest ordinary share values are tracked and reported on a quarterly basis in the 2008 Annual Report. In 2007, the shares were enjoying highs of around $30 and lows of about $22. Cyclical variation in share value is common, reflecting the timing of reporting results and dividends. However in 2008, share value did not rise above $22 and fell below $6 in the fourth quarter. More recently still, share value has fallen to an all-time low of $3 each. The sale of digital cameras worldwide has fallen by 4-5%, and their average retail price has fallen by 30%. Even so, the company has announced that its cash position is secure and it has plans to survive even if the recession continues. It has high hopes that its new inkjet printers that use silicon technology rather than individual ink cartridges will ease the company into recovery. iv. Intangibles of Kodak Kodak is one of the most famous brands in the world. This brand, come through more than one century’s worth of innovations, known by most of the customers and considered as the representation of picture. Besides this, Kodak also holds thousands of image and chromatology patents as well as its good alliance and co-operators. Introduction of SWOT Analysis SWOT analysis is the examination of an organisation’s strengths and weaknesses in relation to its possible opportunities and threats. The strengths and weakness of the organisation derive from the evaluation of its internal resource while the opportunities and threats depend on the assessment of its external environment. SWOT analysis represents an evaluation of how well the organisation utilises its resources to match the needs of the environment in which the firm operates and competes. According to the summary of R. Lynch (Lynch, R. 1997: 262), there have a ange of possible factors as to SWOT analysis. However, we will ignore the factors related to Opportunities and Threats analysis because they have been discussed in above section. In Figure 3 there have a list of the factors for Strengths and Weaknesses analysis. Apply SWOT analysis to Kodak (can be found in Appendix 2) Conclusion To making the best use of the strengths and negate or counter the weaknesses, it is a reasonable decision for Kodak to maintain its progress in Traditional Imaging business (Part 2 of Kodak Strategic Position) and concentrate on combining Digital Imaging and Traditional Imaging as a whole (Part 3 of Kodak Strategic Position). Moreover, Intangibles and Human Resources operate as unique resources and build up Kodak’s Core Competences: Reputation and Core Strengths & Key Skill in the markets Kodak operates. The application of SWOT analysis to organization as well as competitors can indicate a business its relative position in the market and again direct the firm towards appropriate strategies. However, SWOT itself provides no formal set of rules for strategic success, certain general guidelines may nonetheless be deprives from it. This analysis requires an overall understanding of both the environment and the resource capabilities, which likely will restrain the application of this analysis. 4. International marketing strategy The level of diversity of Kodak’s business helps the company to be global and take advantage of the disparate demands of consumer around the world. The company must encourage further diversification of Kodak’s business in the East. Kodak’s slow movement towards digital, coupled with the still early market demands of consumers in emerging markets have bought Kodak time by allowing it to still pursue its outdated model. It can be a result of this global reach, and ability for Kodak to straddle different technologies across locations that the company will continue to strengthen its balance sheet, reducing its debts, and generating more revenue in investable cash. That can happen largely credited to the emerging markets that may become the greatly needed cash-cows of Kodak’s business. In fact, probably the only reason why Kodak hasn’t completely dropped off the competitive landscape is due to emergent Eastern markets that offer a glimmer of hope of interim cash-flow. The key now is to recognise this reprieve and build a global strategy that can continue to exploit silver-halide technology, whilst getting the rest of the firm in shape to address the changed market in the West. Appendix 1 One way to consider the competitive position of Kodak is by means of the Directional Policy Matrix (Thompdon, L. J. 1993). This matrix is constructed above two axes: the Industry Attractiveness in horizontal axis and the organisation’s competitive position in vertical axis. By evaluating relevant factors of these two dimensions we can place appropriate positions for discussed organisation.    |   |Traditional Imaging |Digital Imaging | |Industry Attractiveness |Market Growth |Low |High | | |Supplier Pressure |Low |Low | | |Customer Pressure |High |High | | |Substi tute Products |Low |High | | |Government Action |Constraint |Support | | |Entry Barriers |Low |High | | |Competitive Pressure |High |High | |Competitive Position |Competition |High |High | | |Relative Market Share |High Low | | |Production Capability |High |Medium | | |Research and Development Record |High |Medium | | |and Strength | | | | |Financial Success |Medium |Low | | | | Appendix 2 Refer to Figure 3, there have available resources of Kodak listed in the top and their positive effects on the factors are indicated as â€Å" * †. Viewing from each row, we can obtain an overall evaluation of the resources’ contribution to a single factor and determine whether this factor is Strength or Weakness to Kodak. Furthermore, when viewing from each column, we can even acquire the contributions of one resource to different factors. In fact, Kodak has more strengths than weaknesses in Traditional Imaging market. †¢ It has strengths in Market Dominance and Financial & Cash Resource, thus there has sufficient cash provided for firm’s further activities. †¢ It also has strength in Reputation and Core Strengths & Key Skill, which suggest Kodak maintain its advantage in Traditional Imaging market. The weakness of differentiated product of Kodak in Traditional Imaging indicates that Kodak should extent its product lines to more areas. A rational way to do so is to combine Traditional Imaging with Digital Imaging to generate more innovation. | | Resources |Physical |Human |Financial |Intangibles | | | | |Factors |Resource |Resource |Resource | | | | |Traditional |Market Dominance |* |* |   |* |   |Strength | |Imaging | | | | | | | | Digital Imaging |Market Dominance | | |   |* |   |Weakness | | |Core Strengths & Key Skill | |* |   |* |   |Strength | | |Financial and Cash Resource |   |   | |   |   |Weakness | | |Reputation |   |   |   |* |   |Strength | | |Differentiated Products | | | | |   |Weakness | | While in Digital Imaging market, Kodak has little Strengths but more weakness. †¢ The strength in Reputation and Core Strengths & Key Skill recommends that Kodak continue making effort in Digital Imaging for further success. †¢ It has weakness in Market Dominance and Financial & Cash Resource, therefore Kodak still need invest more money to support its progress in Digital Imaging. The weakness of differentiated product in Digital Imaging also indicates that Kodak should combine Digital Imaging with Traditional Imaging. Seeing about the contribution of resources to factors in Figure 3, we can find that Intangibles and Human Resources represent substantial proportions in gettin g Kodak’s strengths. These two resources, together with other resource, build up the Threshold and Core Competence of Kodak. Appendix 3 Kodak Divisions The company’s products and services are categorized under the following different segments: Consumer photography: †¢ Digital cameras †¢ Software †¢ Printer and camera docks †¢ Online printing services †¢ Accessories †¢ Inkjet paper †¢ Picture maker †¢ Picture CD Film & processing †¢ Single-use cameras Professional products: Films: †¢ Colour transparency films: E-Family †¢ Colour negative films †¢ Laboratory and duplicating films †¢ Black-and-white films †¢ Advanced amateur film Papers: †¢ Professional papers and materials †¢ Inkjet photo paper †¢ Thermal printer media Chemistry: †¢ Photographic chemicals Digital Products: †¢ Professional digital cameras †¢ Digital photo printers †¢ Lab digitisation products †¢ P rofessional photoCD Medical imaging products: †¢ Digital radiography †¢ Computed radiography †¢ RIS/PACS †¢ Medical printing †¢ Mammography †¢ Oncology †¢ Molecular imaging †¢ Dental products Graphic communication products: Colour management and proofing †¢ Press, plates and printing systems †¢ Data management and storage †¢ Document management Business and government products: †¢ Document scanners †¢ Reference archive †¢ Micrographics †¢ Software †¢ Microfilm & more ———————– [? ] |#%,[email  protected]†¹Ã¢â‚¬â€ COOee? -oeYIoA? A ©?  ©?  ©Ã¢â‚¬ ¢Ã‚ ©Ã¢â‚¬ ¢? A? z? nf^fRGh? $Ah|[3mHsHh? $Ah|[3mHo([pic]sH h? $AmHsH h|[3mHsHhYfOh? $AmHo([pic]sHhYfOh? $ACJmHo([pic]sHhYfOh? $ACJmHsHh? $Ah? $AmHo([pic]sH hlVmHsHh? $Ah? $AmHsHhYfOh? $ACJmHo([pic]sHhYfOh? $ACJmHsHharAharA5? CJmHsHharAharA5? CJ(mHsHharA5? CJ(mHsHFigure 3. SWOT Analysis for Koda k Table 1. Evaluation Factors for Directional Policy Matrix

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Importance Of Java To The Internet Computer Science Essay At the beginning Java was known as oak but it was renamed as Java in 1995. The main aim of this language was to provide platform independent language that could be used to create software to be embedded in various consumer electronic devices. Features of Java Java is a programmers language. Java is cohesive and consistent. Except for those constraints imposed by the Internet environment Java gives the programmer full control. Java is to Internet programming where C was to system programming. Importance of Java to the Internet Java has had a profound effect on the Internet because it allows objects to move freely in Cyberspace. In a network there are two categories of objects that are transmitted between the Server and the Personal computer. Passive information Dynamic active programs The Dynamic Self-executing programs cause serious problems in the areas of Security and probability. But Java addresses those concerns and by doing so has opened the door to an exciting new form of program called the Applet. Java can be used to create two types of programs Applications: An application is a program that runs on our Computer under the operating system of that computer. It is more or less like one creating using C or C++. Javas ability to create Applets makes it important. Applet: An Applet is an application designed to be transmitted over the Internet and executed by a Java compatible web browser. An applet is actually a tiny Java program, dynamically downloaded across the network, just like an image. But the difference is it is an intelligent program, not just a media file. It can react to the user input and dynamically change. Features of Java Security Every time you that you download a program you are risking a viral infection. Prior to Java, most users did not download executable programs frequently and most users were worried about the possibility of infecting their systems with a virus. Java answers both these concerns by providing a firewall between a network application and your computer. When you use a Java-compatible Web browser, you can safely download Java applets without fear of virus infection. Portability For programs to be dynamically downloaded to all the various types of platforms connected to the Internet, some means of generating portable executable code is needed .As you will see, the same mechanism that helps ensure security also helps create portability. Indeed Javas solution to these two problems is both elegant and efficient. Java Virtual Machine (JVM) Beyond the language there is the Java virtual machine. The Java virtual machine is an important element of the Java technology. The virtual machine can be embedded within a web browser or an operating system. Once a piece of Java code is loaded onto a machine, it is verified. As part of the loading process, a class loader is invoked and does byte code verification makes sure that the code thats has been generated by the compiler will not corrupt the machine that its loaded on. Byte code verification takes place at the end of the compilation process to make sure that is all accurate and correct Java Architecture Java architecture provides a portable, robust, high performing environment for development. Java provides portability by compiling the byte codes for the Java Virtual Machine, which is then interpreted on each platform by the run-time environment Compilation of code When you compile the code, the Java compiler creates machine code (called byte code) for a hypothetical machine called Java Virtual Machine (JVM). The JVM is supposed to execute the byte code. The JVM is created for overcoming the issue of portability. The code is written and compiled for one machine and interpreted on all machines. This machine is called Java Virtual Machine. Simple Java was designed to be easy for the Professional programmer to learn and to use effectively. If you are an experienced C++ programmer, learning Java will be even easier. Because Java inherits the C/C++ syntax and many of the objects oriented features of C++. Most of the confusing concepts from C++ are either left out of Java or implemented in a cleaner, more approachable manner Object-Oriented Java was not designed to be source-code compatible with any other language. This allowed the Java team the freedom to design with a blank slate. One outcome of this was a clean usable, pragmatic approach to objects. The object model in Java is simple and easy to extend while simple types such as integers are kept as high-performance non-objects. Robust The multi-platform environment of the Web places extraordinary demands on a program, because the program must execute reliably in a variety of systems. The ability to create robust programs was given a high priority in the design of Java. Java is strictly typed language; it checks your code at compile time and run time. Java virtually eliminates the problems of memory management and de-allocation, which is completely automatic. In a well-written Java program, all run time errors can -and should -be managed by your program. SERVLETS Introduction The Java web server is JavaSofts own web Server. The Java web server is just a part of a larger framework, intended to provide you not just with a web server, but also with tools. To build customized network servers for any Internet or Intranet client/server system. Servlets are to a web server, how applets are to the browser. About Servlets Servlets provide a Java-based solution used to address the problems currently associated with doing server-side programming, including inextensible scripting solutions, platform-specific APIs, and incomplete interfaces. Servlets are objects that conform to a specific interface that can be plugged into a Java-based server. Servlets are to the server-side what applets are to the client-side object byte codes that can be dynamically loaded off the net. They differ from applets in that they are faceless objects (without graphics or a GUI component). They serve as platform independent, dynamically loadable, pluggable helper byte code objects on the server side that can be used to dynamically extend server-side functionality. For example, an HTTP Servlets can be used to generate dynamic HTML content. When you use Servlets to do dynamic content you get the following advantages: Theyre faster and cleaner than CGI scripts They use a standard API (the Servlets API) They provide all the advantages of Java (run on a variety of servers without needing to be rewritten) There are many features of Servlets that make them easy and attractive to use. Easily configured using the GUI-based Admin tool Can be loaded and invoked from a local disk or remotely across the network. Can be linked together, or chained, so that one Servlets can call another Servlets, or several Servlets in sequence. Can be called dynamically from within HTML pages, using server-side include tags. Are secure even when downloading across the network, the Servlets security model and Servlets sandbox protect your system from unfriendly behavior. Advantages of the Servlet API One of the great advantages of the Servlet API is protocol independence. It assumes nothing about: The protocol being used to transmit on the net How it is loaded The server environment it will be running in Features of Servlets: Servlets are persistent. Servlet are loaded only by the web server and can maintain services between requests. Servlets are fast. Since Servlets only need to be loaded once, they offer much better performance over their CGI counterparts. Servlets are platform independent. Servlets are extensible. Java is a robust, object-oriented programming language, which easily can be extended to suit your needs Invoking Servlets A Servlet invoker is a Servlet that invokes the service method on a named Servlet. If the Servlet is not loaded in the server, then the invoker first loads the Servlet (either from local disk or from the network) and the then invokes the service method. Also like applets, local Servlets in the server can be identified by just the class name. In other words, if a Servlet name is not absolute, it is treated as local. A client can invoke Servlets in the following ways: The client can ask for a document that is served by the Servlet. The client (browser) can invoke the Servlet directly using a URL, once it has been mapped using the Servlet Aliases section of the admin GUI. The Servlet can be invoked through server side include tags. The Servlet can be invoked by placing it in the Servlets/ directory. The Servlet can be invoked by using it in a filter chain. Java Database Connectivity What Is JDBC? JDBC is a Java API for executing SQL statements. (As a point of interest, JDBC is a trademarked name and is not an acronym; nevertheless, JDBC is often thought of as standing for Java Database Connectivity. It consists of a set of classes and interfaces written in the Java programming language. JDBC provides a standard API for tool/database developers and makes it possible to write database applications using a pure Java API. Using JDBC, it is easy to send SQL statements to virtually any relational database. One can write a single program using the JDBC API, and the program will be able to send SQL statements to the appropriate database. The combinations of Java and JDBC lets a programmer write it once and run it anywhere. What Does JDBC Do? Simply put, JDBC makes it possible to do three things: Establish a connection with a database Send SQL statements Process the results. JDBC versus ODBC and other APIs At this point, Microsofts ODBC (Open Database Connectivity) API is that probably the most widely used programming interface for accessing relational databases. It offers the ability to connect to almost all databases on almost all platforms. So why not just use ODBC from Java? The answer is that you can use ODBC from Java, but this is best done with the help of JDBC in the form of the JDBC-ODBC Bridge, which we will cover shortly. The question now becomes Why do you need JDBC? There are several answers to this question: ODBC is not appropriate for direct use from Java because it uses a C interface. Calls from Java to native C code have a number of drawbacks in the security, implementation, robustness, and automatic portability of applications. A literal translation of the ODBC C API into a Java API would not be desirable. For example, Java has no pointers, and ODBC makes copious use of them, including the notoriously error-prone generic pointer void *. You can think of JDBC as ODBC translated into an object-oriented interface that is natural for Java programmers. ODBC is hard to learn. It mixes simple and advanced features together, and it has complex options even for simple queries. JDBC, on the other hand, was designed to keep simple things simple while allowing more advanced capabilities where required. A Java API like JDBC is needed in order to enable a pure Java solution. When ODBC is used, the ODBC driver manager and drivers must be manually installed on every client machine. When the JDBC driver is written completely in Java, however, JDBC code is automatically installable, portable, and secure on all Java platforms from network computers to mainframes. Two-tier and three-tier Models The JDBC API supports both two-tier and three-tier models for database access. In the two-tier model, a Java applet or application talks directly to the database. This requires a JDBC driver that can communicate with the particular database management system being accessed. A users SQL statements are delivered to the database, and the results of those statements are sent back to the user. The database may be located on another machine to which the user is connected via a network. This is referred to as a client/server configuration, with the users machine as the client, and the machine housing the database as the server. The network can be an Intranet, which, for example, connects employees within a corporation, or it can be the Internet. JAVA Application JDBC DBMS Client machine DBMS-proprietary protocol Database server Java applet or Html browser Application Server (Java) JDBC DBMS Client machine (GUI) HTTP, RMI, or CORBA calls Server machine (business Logic) DBMS-proprietary protocol Database server In the three-tier model, commands are sent to a middle tier of services, which then send SQL statements to the database. The database processes the SQL statements and sends the results back to the middle tier, which then sends them to the user. MIS directors find the three-tier model very attractive because the middle tier makes it possible to maintain control over access and the kinds of updates that can be made to corporate data. Another advantage is that when there is a middle tier, the user can employ an easy-to-use higher-level API which is translated by the middle tier into the appropriate low-level calls. Finally, in many cases the three-tier architecture can provide performance advantages. Until now the middle tier has typically been written in languages such as C or C++, which offer fast performance. However, with the introduction of optimizing compilers that translate Java byte code into efficient machine-specific code, it is becoming practical to implement the middle tier in Java. This is a big plus, making it possible to take advantage of Javas robustness, multithreading, and security features. JDBC is important to allow database access from a Java middle tier. JDBC Driver Types The JDBC drivers that we are aware of at this time fit into one of four categories: JDBC-ODBC bridge plus ODBC driver Native-API partly-Java driver JDBC-Net pure Java driver Native-protocol pure Java driver